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Agilent
Fundamentals of RF and
Microwave Power Measurements
Application Note 64-1C




               Classic application note on
               power measurements

               Newly revised and updated
    Table of Contents
    I. Introduction
        The importance of power.................................................................................................................................5
        A brief history of power measurement .........................................................................................................6
        A history of peak power measurements........................................................................................................7

    II. Power Measurement
        Units and definitions........................................................................................................................................9
        IEEE video pulse standards adapted for microwave pulses......................................................................13
        Peak power waveform definitions ..................................................................................................................14
        New power sensors and meters for pulsed and complex modulation......................................................15
        Three methods of sensing power ...................................................................................................................15
        Key power sensor parameters .......................................................................................................................16
        The hierarchy of power measurement, national standards and traceability .........................................17

    III. Thermistor Sensors and Instrumentation
        Thermistor sensors ..........................................................................................................................................19
        Coaxial thermistor sensors . ...........................................................................................................................20
        Waveguide thermistor sensors ........................................................................................................................20
        Bridges, from Wheatstone to dual-compensated DC types .......................................................................20
        Thermistors as power transfer standards.....................................................................................................22
        Other DC-substitution meters .........................................................................................................................22
        Some measurement considerations for power sensor comparisons.........................................................23
        Typical sensor comparison system ................................................................................................................23
        Network analyzer source system ....................................................................................................................24
        NIST 6-port calibration system.......................................................................................................................25

    IV. Thermocouple Sensors and Instrumentation
        Principles of thermocouples ..........................................................................................................................26
        The thermocouple sensor ................................................................................................................................27
        Power meters for thermocouple sensors.......................................................................................................31
        Reference oscillator ..........................................................................................................................................33
        EPM series power meters ................................................................................................................................33

    V. Diode Sensors and Instrumentation
        Diode detector principles ................................................................................................................................35
        Using diodes for sensing power ......................................................................................................................37
        Wide-dynamic-range CW-only power sensors ..............................................................................................39
        Wide-dynamic-range average power sensors................................................................................................40
        A new versatile power meter to exploit 90 dB range sensors ...................................................................42
        Traceable power reference ..............................................................................................................................44
        Signal waveform effects on the measurement uncertainty of diode sensors ........................................45




2
VI. Peak and Average Diode Sensors and Instrumentation
           Pulsed formats ................................................................................................................................................48
           Complex modulation wireless signals.........................................................................................................49
           Other formats..................................................................................................................................................50
           Peak and average power sensing .................................................................................................................51
           EPM-P series power meters ..........................................................................................................................53
           Computation power........................................................................................................................................55
           Bandwidth considerations ............................................................................................................................56
           Versatile user interface..................................................................................................................................57

VII. Measurement Uncertainty
           An international guide to the expression of uncertainties .....................................................................58
           Power transfer, generators and loads ........................................................................................................59
           RF circuit descriptions ..................................................................................................................................59
           Reflection coefficient ....................................................................................................................................61
           Signal flowgraph visualization .....................................................................................................................62
           Mismatch uncertainty....................................................................................................................................66
           Mismatch loss and mismatch gain...............................................................................................................67
           Other sensor uncertainties ...........................................................................................................................67
           Calibration factor ..........................................................................................................................................68
           Power meter instrumentation uncertainties ............................................................................................69
           Calculating total uncertainty........................................................................................................................71
           Power measurement equation .....................................................................................................................72
           Worst case uncertainty ..................................................................................................................................74
           RSS uncertainty..............................................................................................................................................75
           New method of combining power meter uncertainties ...........................................................................76
           Power measurement model for ISO process ..............................................................................................77
           Standard uncertainty of mismatch model .................................................................................................79
           Example of calculation of uncertainty using ISO model .........................................................................80

VIII. Power Measurement Instrumentation Compared
           Accuracy vs. power level ...............................................................................................................................84
           Frequency range and SWR (reflection coefficient) ..................................................................................86
           Speed of response ..........................................................................................................................................87
           Automated power measurement .................................................................................................................88
           Susceptibility to overload..............................................................................................................................89
           Signal waveform effects.................................................................................................................................90
           An applications overview of Agilent sensors.............................................................................................90
           A capabilities overview of Agilent sensors and power meters ...............................................................91

Glossary and List of Symbols .................................................................................................................94




Pulse terms and definitions, figure 2-5, reprinted from IEEE STD 194-1977 and ANSI/IEEE STD 181-1977, Copyright 

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