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HP-UX
Systent Adntinistrator Manual
HP 9000 Series 500 Computers
HP Part Number 97089-90059
Flin- HEWLETT
~~ PACKARD
Hewlett-Packard Company
3404 East Harmony Road, Fort Collins, Colorado 80525
NOTICE
The information contained in this document is subject to change without notice.
HEWLETT-PACKARD MAKES NO WARRANTY OF ANY KIND WITH REGARD TO THIS MANUAL. INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO,
THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. Hewlett-Packard shall not be liable
for errors contained herein or direct, indirect, special, incidental or consequential damages in connection with the furnishing, performance,
or use of this material.
WARRANTY
A copy of the specific warranty terms applicable to your Hewlett-Packard product and replacement parts can be obtained from your local
Sales and ServICe Office.
Copyright 1986, 1987 Hewlett-Packard Company
This document contains proprietary information which is protected by copyright All rights are reserved. No part of this document may be
phOtOCOPied, reproduced or translated to another language without the prior wntten consent of Hewlett-Packard Company. The information
contained in this document is subject to change without notice
Restricted Rights Legend
Use, duplication or disclosure by the Government is subject to restrictions as set forth In paragraph (b)(3)(B) of the Rights in Technical Data and
Software clause in DAR 7-104.9(a)
Use of this manual and flexible disc(s) or tape cartridge(s) supplied for this pack is restricted to this product only. Additional copies of the programs
can be made for security and back-up purposes only. Resale of the programs in their present form or with alterations, is expressly prohibited.
Copyright 1980, 1984, AT&T, Inc.
Copyright 1979, 1980, 1983, The Regents of the University of California
This software and documentation is based in part on the Fourth Berkeley Software Distribution under license from the Regents of the University
of California
ii
___ __~_~lI ~_!_~_~_:_~D_T~1 ~_________c__ u_s_to rn_e_r N_o_t_e
__ __ ________ ~
Hewlett-Packard is in the process of changing the color of our documentation binders. In order
to accomplish this changeover we are placing two spine inserts with this manual. Please use the
insert that matches the binders you receive.
Hewlett-Packard Company. 3404 East Harmony Road. Fort Collins, Colorado 80525
Printed in U.S.A.
Printing History
New editions of this manual will incorporate all material updated since the previous
edition. Update packages may be issued between editions and contain replacement and
additional pages to be merged into the manual by the user. Each updated page will be
indicated by a revision date at the bottom of the page. A vertical bar in the margin
indicates the changes on each page. Note that pages which are rearranged due to changes
on a previous page are not considered revised.
The manual printing date and part number indicate its current edition. The printing
date changes when a new edition is printed. (Minor corrections and updates which are
incorporated at reprint do not cause the date to change.) The manual part number
changes when extensive technical changes are incorporated.
July 1986 ... Edition 1
April 1987 ... Edition 2
Updated to reflect HP-UX 5.2 software changes.
Printing History iii
iv
Table of Contents
Chapter 1: Getting Started
Welcome ............................................................... 1
What's In This Manual? ................................................. 1
Conventions Used in this Manual ......................................... 3
Naming Conventions ................................................ 3
Key board Conventions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4
Using Other HP-UX Manuals ............................................. 4
Single-user vs. Multi-user Systems ...................................... " 4
The Administrator's Responsibilities ...................................... 5
Installing and Testing the Hardware. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5
Installing the HP-UX Operating System ............................... 5
Evaluating Users' Needs ............................................. 5
Configuring HP -UX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6
Allowing Users Access to the System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6
Adding and Moving Peripheral Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6
Monitoring File System Use and Growth ............................... 6
Updating the HP-UX System ............. , ........................... 7
Backing Up and Restoring the System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 7
Detecting/Correcting File System Errors ............................... 8
Assisting Other Users ............................................... 8
Providing a "Back-up" Administrator ................................. 8
User Survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 9
Chapter 2: Installing HP-UX
Installation Overview/Checklist. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 11
Before Installing HP-UX ................................................ 12
System Distribution Media .......................................... 12
Check the Read Me First Document .................................. 12
System Console .................................................... 13
Verify the Hardware ................................................ 14
Installation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 17
Load the First "Installation" Tape ................................... 17
Begin the Installation .............................................. 18
Table of Contents v
U sing Your System ................................................... " 30
Setting Minimum Protections ...................................... " 30
Setting the System Clock ........................................... 31
System Administrator Tasks ....................................... " 33
Moving On ...................................................... " 35
Installation Troubleshooting Hints ....................................... 36
Problems Initializing the Destination Device ......................... " 36
Problems While Loading From the Installation Tapes ................. " 37
Chapter 3: Concepts
Processes ............................................................. 41
Process Creation ................................................. " 41
(Parent and Child Processes) ...................................... " 41
Process Termination .............................................. " 43
Process Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 43
Terminal Affiliation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 44
Open Files in a Process ........................................... " 44
IDs .................................................................. 45
The Super-User. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 46
File System Implementation ........................................... " 47
The Volume Header ............................................. '" 53
File Format and Compatibility ...................................... 53
File Protection .................................................... 54
File Sharing and Locking ........................................... 58
Magnetic Tape ........................................................ 61
Magtape Definitions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 61
Preventive Maintenance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 65
Tape Streaming. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 65
Memory Management .................................................. 69
Memory Allocation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 69
Virtual Memory ................................................... 73
Shared Code ...................................................... 76
Demand Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 78
Paged External Data Segments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 79
Combining Memory Management Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 82
The Buffer Cache . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 83
Peripheral Device I/O .................................................. 85
Device Classes ................................................... " 85
Drivers ........................................................... 86
The HP-UX Hierarchy .................................................. 87
vi Table of Contents
Chapter 4: System Startup and Shutdown
System Startup Functions ............................................... 92
Booting the System ...................... , , , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 92
Overview of Internal Functions of System Startup. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 94
The Boot ROM ................................... , ................ 95
HP-UX Takes Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 96
HP-UX Starts the Init Process ....................................... 97
Init Brings the System to Run-Level 2 ................................ 98
Init Spawns gettys to Cause a Login Prompt .......................... 99
A User Logs In ................................................... 101
System Administration Mode ....................................... 105
Booting Problems ................................................. 105
Shutting Down the System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 106
Power Fail or Disk Crash Recovery ...................................... 109
Chapter 5: The System Administrator's Toolbox
Adding/Moving Peripheral Devices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 113
Overview of the Task . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 114
Determining the Peripheral's Location ............................... 115
Connecting the Peripheral. ......................................... 116
Block versus Character Device Files. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 116
Creating Device Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 117
Using the mkdev Script ............................................ 118
Using mknod with the Supplied Tables .............................. 120
Miscellaneous Devices ............................................. 124
Memory Volumes ................................................. 125
Terminals and Modems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 126
Consoles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 132
Pseudo Terminals ................................................. 133
Hard Disks, Flexible Disks, and Cartridge Tapes ...................... 134
Nine-Thack Magnetic Tape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 138
Printers ......................................................... 141
Plotters and Digitizers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 145
Adding/Removing Users . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 147
Creating the /etc/passwd Entry .................................... 147
The "Makeuser" Script ......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 149
The Step-by-Step Method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 150
Setting the New User's Password .................................... 152
Removing a User from the System .................................. 153
Suspending a User from the System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 153
Adding to /etc/checklist ............................................... 154
Table of Contents vii
Backing up and Restoring the File System ............................... 156
Backup Strategies and Trade-offs ................................... 156
Things to Consider about File System Backups ....................... 158
Performing a System Backup ....................................... 160
Backing Up Selected Files onto Flexible Disk or Magnetic Tape ......... 163
Backing up Selected Files onto Cartridge Tape. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 164
Restoring the System .............................................. 164
Diagnostics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 168
Performing Backups Automatically .................................. 168
Changing a Password. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 170
Changing and Creating System Run-Levels ............................... 171
Changing the System's Run-Level ................................... 172
Re-reading /etc/inittab ............................................ 173
Creating New System Run-Levels ................................... 173
Example /etc/inittab .............................................. 175
Changing the HP-UX Environment Files ................................. 176
/ etc /inittab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 176
/etc/rc .......................................................... 176
/etc/passwd ...................................................... 177
/etc/group ....................................................... 177
/etc/motd ....................................................... 177
/usr /news . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 177
/etc/profile or /etc/csh.login ....................................... 178
/etc/utmp ....................................................... 178
/etc/wtmp ....................................................... 178
/etc/btmp ...................................................... , 178
/etc/securetty .................................................... 179
$HOME/.profile, $HOME/.cshrc, $HOME/.login ..................... 179
$HOME/ .exrc ................................................... , 180
/ usr /li b / terminfo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 180
/etc/checklist .................................................... , 180
/etc/catman ...................................................... 181
/etc/issue ........................................................ 182
/etc/csh.login~ fete/reo and /ete/profile .............................. 182
/usr /lib/tztab .................................................... 183
/etc/ttytype ..................................................... , 183
/usr/adm/errfile ................................................. , 183
Communicating with System Users ..................................... , 184
viii Table of Contents
Configuring the HP-UX Operating System ............................... 185
Configurable Attributes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 185
How to Configure Your Operating System ............................ 188
Setting the Default Configuration Parameters ........................ 189
Controlling Disk Use .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 190
Creating File Systems ................................................. 191
Creating Groups/Changing Group Memhership ........................... 193
Creating and Using a Recovery System .................................. 194
When to Create/Recreate the Recovery System ....................... 194
Creating a Recovery System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 195
Using the mkrs Script ............................................. 197
Booting the Recovery System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 198
Shutting Down the Recovery System ................................ 199
Using the Recovery System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 199
Notes on the System Console Device ................................ 203
Media Utilities ....................................................... 205
Initializing Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 205
Initializing Disks to SDF Format .................................... 206
Initializing Media to LIF Format .................................... 209
Commands and Utilities to Transfer Files ............................ 211
Commands to Monitor Your File System ............................. 216
Commands to Verify the Integrity of your Media ...................... 216
Modifying the Boot Area .............................................. 217
How to Add Segments ............................................. 217
Removing Segments ............................................... 218
Replacing Segments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 219
Checking the Boot Area ........................................... 219
Optional System Segments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 219
Mounting and Unmounting File Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 221
To Mount a File System ........................................... 222
To U nmount a File System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 225
Errors ........................................................... 226
Mounting/Unmounting File Systems Using /etc/checklist .............. 227
New Naming Conventions for Device Files. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 228
Removing Optional Products and File sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 231
Setting the System Clock .............................................. 232
Table of Contents ix
Setting Up the LP Spooler ........................................... " 235
What is in this Section ............................................ 235
LP Spooler Terminology and Overview .............................. 236
Installing the LP Spooler .......................................... 237
Example ....................................................... " 240
General-Purpose LP Spooler Commands ............................. 241
System Administrator LP Spooler Commands ...................... " 241
Other LP Spooler Adminstrator Duties ............................ " 242
How Models Work ................................................ 246
Updating HP-UX and Installing Optional Products ....................... 247
Preparing to Update ............................................ " 247
Locate and Write-protect the Product ............................. " 249
Load the Update Tools ............................................ 249
Perform the Update ............................................. " 250
Using Opt install to Install Optional Products. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 258
Chapter 6: System Accounting
What Is in This Chapter? .............................................. 264
Installation and Daily Usage ........................................... 265
How to Install System Accounting .................................. 265
Summary of Daily Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 268
Overview of System Accounting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 269
Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 270
Introduction to Commands. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 272
System Data Flow ................................................ 276
Login and Directory Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 278
Disk Space Usage Accounting ........................................... 281
Reporting Disk Space Usage ........................................ 281
Creating Total Accounting Records ................................. 284
Connect Session Accounting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 286
Writing Records to wtmp - acctwtmp... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 286
Displaying Connect Session Records - fwtmp ....................... 287
Fixing whup Errors wtmpfix .................................... 289
Creating Total Accounting Records ................................. 289
x Table of Contents
Process Accounting ................................................... 293
Thrning Process Accounting On .................................... 293
Thrning Process Accounting Off . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 295
Checking the Size of pacct ......................................... 296
Displaying Process Accounting Records acctcom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 298
Command Summary Report - acctcms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 307
Creating Total Accounting Records ................................. 311
Charging Fees to Users - chargefee .................................... 313
Summarizing and Reporting Accounting Information ...................... 314
Displaying Total Accounting Records prtacct ...................... 314
Merging Total Accounting Files - acctmerg ......................... 317
Creating Daily Accounting Information - runacct ................... 319
Displaying runacct Reports - prdaily .............................. 325
Creating Monthly Accounting Reports - monacct ................... 327
Updating the Holidays File ............................................. 329
Fixing Corrupted Files ................................................ 330
Fixing wtmp Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 330
Fixing tacct Errors ................................................ 331
Sample Accounting Shell Scripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 332
grpdusg. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 332
acct_ bill ................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 334
System Accounting Files ............................................... 337
Files in the /usr/adm directory ............................. .- ....... 337
Files in the /usr/adm/acct/nite directory ............................ 337
Files in the /usr/adm/acct/sum directory ............................ 338
Files in the /usr/adm/acct/fiscal directory ........................... 339
Appendix A: Using the FSCK Command
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 341
Updating the HP-UX File System ....................................... 342
Super-Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 342
I-nodes .......................................................... 343
File Attributes File. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 343
Data Blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 344
Free Map Blocks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 344
Corruption of the File System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 345
Improper System Shutdown and Startup ............................. 345
Hardware Failure ................................................. 345
Table of Contents xi
Detection and Correction of Corruption. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 346
File-System Size and I-node-List Size ................................ 346
Free Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 347
Executing the FSCK Command. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 348
A Walk Through. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 351
FSCK and Virtual Memory ........................................ 358
Appendix B: System Loader Messages
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 359
Messages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 360
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 363
Subject Index ............................................................ 371
xii Table of Contents
Getting Started 1
Welcome
This manual is written for you, the Series 500 HP-UX system administrator. Although
some familiarity with computers is assumed, this manual will serve people with varying
levels of expertise. If you are already a UNIX l expert, you will find much here that
is familiar but may well encounter something new. The HP-UX Operating System is
composed primarily of Bell Laboratories' System V.2 UNIX. However, Hewlett-Packard
has incorporated its own extensions as well as features from the University of California
at Berkeley Unix 4.1 and 4.2 BSD (Berkeley Systems Distribution) systems and from
Bell's System V UNIX.
Who is the system administrator? The system administrator is the person responsible
for installing the HP-UX Operating System software, updating the software, tuning the
system for optimum performance, maintaining the system, and repairing the system
when something goes wrong. Additionally, the system administrator should become an
HP-UX "guru", the local expert to whom other HP-UX users go for help.
What's In This Manual?
This manual is a guide designed to help you fulfill your duties as system administrator.
The following is an overview of the chapters in this manual.
Chapter 1: Getting Started
This chapter provides an overview of the System Administrator Manual, explains the
conventions the manual uses, mentions other manuals which will aid you in administrative
tasks, points out differences between single-user and multi-user systems, and discusses
the system administrator's responsibilities.
1 UNIX is a trademark of AT&T Bell Laboratories.
Getting Started 1
Chapter 2: Installing HP-UX
This chapter defines terminology used throughout the manual, provides step-by-step
instructions for installing the HP-UX Operating System software and explains what to
do after the system has been successfully installed.
Chapter 3: Concepts
Certain concepts used and implemented in HP -UX must be understood by the system
administrator. This chapter discusses such concepts as processes, IDs, the super-user,
block and character input/output, the file system and its use of mass storage devices,
compatibility issues, file protection, and memory management.
Chapter 4: System Startup and Shutdown
Many things happen between the time you power up the computer running HP-UX and
the time a user has logged in (gained access) to the system. This chapter examines what
happens in the HP-UX system. It also describes the proper method of shutting down
the system.
Chapter 5: The System Administrator's Toolbox
Arranged alphabetically by task, this chapter contains instructions for accomplishing
tasks the system administrator generally performs. It also includes a list of environment
files you may wish to customize.
Chapter 6: System Accounting
As system administrator you may want to periodically evaluate how well your Series
500 HP-UX system is operating, as well as how many resources those logging onto your
system are using. This chapter discusses the various accounting features available on
HP-UX, how to install them and how to produce various useful reports.
2 Getting Started
Conventions Used in this Manual
Naming Conventions
The following naming conventions are used throughout this manual.
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