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                                     7Edition
                                        th



Low Level Measurements Handbook




    Precision DC Current, Voltage,
    and Resistance Measurements
 Low Level
Measurements
 Handbook
Precision DC Current, Voltage,
and Resistance Measurements



 SEVENTH EDITION
      Contents
SECTION 1 Low Level DC Measuring Instruments
1.1   Introduction ............................................................................................... 1-3
1.2   Theoretical Measurement Limits .......................................................... 1-3
1.3   Instrument Definitions ............................................................................ 1-5
      1.3.1       The Electrometer ......................................................... 1-5
      1.3.2       The DMM ......................................................................1-7
      1.3.3       The Nanovoltmeter .......................................................1-7
      1.3.4       The Picoammeter ......................................................... 1-8
      1.3.5       The Source Measure Unit Instrument ......................... 1-8
      1.3.6       The Low Current Preamp ............................................ 1-9
      1.3.7       The Micro-ohmmeter ................................................... 1-9
      1.3.8       The Low Current Source ............................................. 1-9
1.4   Understanding Instrument Specifications ....................................... 1-10
      1.4.1       Definition of Accuracy Terms .....................................1-10
      1.4.2       Accuracy ......................................................................1-11
      1.4.3       Deratings .....................................................................1-15
      1.4.4       Noise and Noise Rejection ..........................................1-15
      1.4.5       Speed ..........................................................................1-17
1.5   Circuit Design Basics ............................................................................. 1-17
      1.5.1       Voltmeter Circuits .......................................................1-17
      1.5.2       Ammeter Circuits ........................................................1-19
      1.5.3       Coulombmeter Circuit ................................................1-23
      1.5.4       High Resistance Ohmmeter Circuits ..........................1-24
      1.5.5       Low Resistance Ohmmeter Circuits............................1-26
      1.5.6       Complete Instruments ............................................... 1-28


SECTION 2 Measurements from High Resistance Sources
2.1   Introduction ............................................................................................... 2-2
2.2   Voltage Measurements from High Resistance Sources ................... 2-2
      2.2.1 Loading Errors and Guarding...................................... 2-3
      2.2.2 Insulation Resistance of the Test Circuit ....................2-11
2.3   Low Current Measurements ................................................................ 2-15
      2.3.1       Leakage Currents and Guarding ................................2-15
      2.3.2       Noise and Source Impedance .....................................2-21
      2.3.3       Zero Drift ................................................................... 2-23
      2.3.4       Generated Currents ................................................... 2-23
      2.3.5       Voltage Burden ...........................................................2-31



      Low Level Measurements Handbook                                                                                    iii
       2.3.6 Overload Protection ................................................... 2-33
       2.3.7 AC Interference and Damping ................................... 2-34
       2.3.8 Using a Coulombmeter to Measure Low Current ..... 2-35
2.4    High Resistance Measurements ......................................................... 2-39
       2.4.1 Constant-Voltage Method........................................... 2-40
       2.4.2 Constant-Current Method ......................................... 2-41
2.5    Charge Measurements.......................................................................... 2-46
       2.5.1       Error Sources ............................................................. 2-47
       2.5.2       Zero Check ................................................................. 2-48
       2.5.3       Extending the Charge Measurement Range
                   of the Electrometer .................................................... 2-48
2.6    General Electrometer Considerations............................................... 2-49
       2.6.1       Making Connections .................................................. 2-50
       2.6.2       Electrostatic Interference and Shielding ....................2-51
       2.6.3       Environmental Factors............................................... 2-55
       2.6.4       Speed Considerations ................................................ 2-56
       2.6.5       Johnson Noise ............................................................ 2-62
       2.6.6       Device Connections ................................................... 2-66
       2.6.7       Analog Outputs .......................................................... 2-69
       2.6.8       Floating Input Signals .................................................2-70
2.7    High Impedance Measurement Optimization Summary.............. 2-71


SECTION 3 Measurements from Low Resistance Sources
3.1    Introduction ............................................................................................... 3-2

3.2    Low Voltage Measurements ................................................................... 3-2
       3.2.1       Effects of Error Sources on Voltage Measurements .... 3-2
       3.2.2       Thermoelectric EMFs ................................................... 3-3
       3.2.3       Internal Offsets ............................................................ 3-7
       3.2.4       Zero Drift ..................................................................... 3-7
       3.2.5       RFI/EMI ........................................................................ 3-9
       3.2.6       Johnson Noise .............................................................3-10
       3.2.7       1/f Noise ......................................................................3-11
       3.2.8       Line Cycle Interference and Line Cycle Integration .. 3-12
       3.2.9       Magnetic Fields .......................................................... 3-13
       3.2.10      Ground Loops .............................................................3-14
       3.2.11      Ways to Reduce Noise .................................................3-16
       3.2.12      Common-Mode Current and Reversal Errors ............3-17



  iv
3.3   Low Resistance Measurements.......................................................... 3-18
      3.3.1 Lead Resistance and Four-Wire Method .................... 3-18
      3.3.2 Thermoelectric EMFs and
            Offset Compensation Methods .................................. 3-20
      3.3.3 Non-Ohmic Contacts ................................................. 3-25
      3.3.4 Device Heating ........................................................... 3-26
      3.3.5 Dry Circuit Testing ..................................................... 3-27
      3.3.6 Testing Inductive Devices .......................................... 3-28
3.4   Measurement Optimization Summary for
      Low Impedance Measurements ......................................................... 3-29


SECTION 4 Applications
4.1   Introduction .............................................................................................. 4-2

4.2   Applications for Measuring Voltage from
      High Resistance Sources ........................................................................ 4-2
      4.2.1 Capacitor Dielectric Absorption ................................. 4-2
      4.2.2 Electrochemical Measurements .................................. 4-6
4.3   Low Current Measurement Applications ........................................... 4-9
      4.3.1 Capacitor Leakage Measurements .............................. 4-9
      4.3.2 Low Current Diode Measurements .......................... 4-13
      4.3.3 Low Current Measurements of MOSFETs...................4-16
      4.3.4 Light Measurements with Photomultiplier Tubes ..... 4-18
      4.3.5 Ion Beam Measurements .......................................... 4-21
      4.3.6 Photoconductive Current of PIN Photodiode ........... 4-23
      4.3.7 Avalanche Photodiode Reverse Bias Current
            Measurements ............................................................ 4-24
      4.3.8 Current-Voltage Characterization of
            Carbon Nanotube (CNT) FETs .................................. 4-26
4.4   High Resistance Measurement Applications .................................. 4-28
      4.4.1 Surface Insulation Resistance Testing of
            Printed Circuit Boards .............................................. 4-28
      4.4.2 Resistivity Measurements of Insulating Materials .... 4-30
      4.4.3 Resistivity Measurements of Semiconductors .......... 4-34
      4.4.4 Voltage Coefficient Testing of High Ohmic
            Value Resistors .......................................................... 4-44
4.5   Charge Measurement Applications .................................................. 4-45
      4.5.1       Capacitance Measurements ...................................... 4-45



      Low Level Measurements Handbook                                                                                   v
        4.5.2       Using a Faraday Cup to Measure Static Charge
                    on Objects ................................................................. 4-46
4.6     Low Voltage Measurement Applications ........................................ 4-48
        4.6.1 Standard Cell Comparisons ...................................... 4-48
        4.6.2 High Resolution Temperature Measurements
               and Microcalorimetry ............................................... 4-50
        4.6.3 Hall Voltage and Resistivity Measurements
               of a Six-Terminal Bridge Sample ................................ 4-53
4.7     Low Resistance Measurement Applications .................................. 4-54
        4.7.1       Contact Resistance .................................................... 4-54
        4.7.2       Superconductor Resistance Measurements .............. 4-57
        4.7.3       Resistivity Measurements of Conductive Materials .. 4-59


SECTION 5 Low Level Instrument Selection Guide
5.1     Introduction ............................................................................................... 5-2
5.2     Instrument and Accessory Selector Guides........................................ 5-2


APPENDIX A Cable and Connector Assembly


APPENDIX B Glossary


APPENDIX C Safety Considerations
        Test System Safety ................................................................................... C-2
        General Safety Considerations ............................................................. C-2


INDEX




  vi
SECTION 1


Low Level DC
  Measuring
 Instruments
      FIGURE 1-1: Standard Symbols Used in this Text




                                         Prefixes
                      Symbol              Prefix        Exponent
                          y               yocto-          10

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